python · nayanraj864-cmyk · Sep 8, 2026 · Sep 8, 2026
diff --git a/developer-workflow/bytecode-specialization.rst b/developer-workflow/bytecode-specialization.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+.. _bytecode-specialization:
+
+================================
+Adding a Bytecode Specialization
+================================
+
+CPython uses an adaptive, specializing interpreter (PEP 659) to optimize bytecode execution dynamically at runtime. When generic opcodes (such as ``CONTAINS_OP`` or ``BINARY_OP``) execute frequently with predictable operand types, CPython morphs them into specialized fast-path micro-ops (uops) to bypass generic type dispatch.
+
+This guide describes the step-by-step process of introducing a new bytecode specialization in CPython.
+
+.. note::
+
+   This guide uses the specialization of ``CONTAINS_OP`` (from `CPython PR #116385 <https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/116385>`_) as a reference example.
+
+
+Overview of Steps
+-----------------
+
+Adding a new bytecode specialization involves coordinated changes across several files in the CPython source tree:
+
+1. :ref:`spec-step-bytecodes`
+2. :ref:`spec-step-uop`
+3. :ref:`spec-step-macro`
+4. :ref:`spec-step-cache-struct`
+5. :ref:`spec-step-specialize-fn`
+6. :ref:`spec-step-stats`
+7. :ref:`spec-step-opcode-py`
+8. :ref:`spec-step-magic-num`
+9. :ref:`spec-step-regen`
+
+
+.. _spec-step-bytecodes:
+
+1. Modify the Opcode Definition in ``Python/bytecodes.c``
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+In ``Python/bytecodes.c``, locate the existing generic instruction. Change its definition from a top-level instruction (``inst``) to a micro-op (``op``) and prefix its name with an underscore.
+
+For example, convert ``CONTAINS_OP`` into ``_CONTAINS_OP``:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    op(_CONTAINS_OP, (left, right -- res)) {
+        // Implementation of generic operation
+        int res_val = PySequence_Contains(right, left);
+        if (res_val < 0) goto error;
+        res = res_val ? Py_True : Py_False;
+    }
+
+
+.. _spec-step-uop:
+
+2. Add the Specializing Micro-Op (uop)
+--------------------------------------
+
+Add a new uop definition in ``Python/bytecodes.c`` that triggers the specialization check when the execution counter reaches zero.
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    op(_SPECIALIZE_CONTAINS_OP, (left, right -- left, right)) {
+        _PySpecializer_Requestation(this_instr, _SPECIALIZE_CONTAINS_OP);
+    }
+
+
+.. _spec-step-macro:
+
+3. Define the Macro Instruction
+-------------------------------
+
+Combine the specializing uop and the original uop into a macro instruction using ``macro`` syntax in ``Python/bytecodes.c``:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    macro(CONTAINS_OP) = _SPECIALIZE_CONTAINS_OP + _CONTAINS_OP;
+
+
+.. _spec-step-cache-struct:
+
+4. Define the Cache Structure in ``Include/internal/pycore_code.h``
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Define a C struct for the instruction's inline cache in ``Include/internal/pycore_code.h``. Every cache entry must include at least a 16-bit specialization counter (``counter``), plus any specialized metadata or version pointers needed.
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    typedef struct {
+        _PySpecializationCacheTop counter;
+        // Additional cache fields if needed (e.g., version or type pointers)
+    } _PyContainsOpCache;
+
+
+.. _spec-step-specialize-fn:
+
+5. Write the Specializing Function in ``Python/specialize.c``
+-------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Implement the specializing logic in ``Python/specialize.c``. This function inspects the runtime operand types, checks whether they qualify for a fast path, updates the cache, and rewrites the opcode if appropriate.
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    void
+    _Py_Specialize_ContainsOp(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, _Py_CODEUNIT *instr)
+    {
+        _PyContainsOpCache *cache = (_PyContainsOpCache *)instr;
+        if (PySet_CheckExact(right)) {
+            // Specialize for set containment
+            instr->op.code = _BINARY_OP_CONTAINS_SET;
+        }
+        else {
+            // Fallback / UNSTATISFIED
+            STAT_INC(CONTAINS_OP, failure);
+        }
+    }
+
+
+.. _spec-step-stats:
+
+6. Update Operation Statistics in ``Python/specialize.c``
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+Track specialization hits, misses, and execution counts by calling ``add_stat_dict()`` or incrementing statistic counters in ``Python/specialize.c``:
+
+.. code-block:: c
+
+    STAT_INC(CONTAINS_OP, hit);
+
+
+.. _spec-step-opcode-py:
+
+7. Add Cache Layout in ``Lib/opcode.py``
+----------------------------------------
+
+Update ``Lib/opcode.py`` to inform Python's ``dis`` (disassembler) module about the size and structure of the new instruction's inline cache entries:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+    _specialized_opcodes["CONTAINS_OP"] = {
+        "counter": 1,
+    }
+
+
+.. _spec-step-magic-num:
+
+8. Bump the Magic Number in ``Include/internal/pycore_magic_number.h``
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Because adding or altering inline cache structures changes the bytecode format, increment ``MAGIC_NUMBER`` in ``Include/internal/pycore_magic_number.h``. This ensures older ``.pyc`` files are invalidated and recompiled.
+
+
+.. _spec-step-regen:
+
+9. Regenerate Code Files
+------------------------
+
+Run the code generators to update auto-generated files (like ``opcode_targets.h``, ``executor_cases.c``, etc.):
+
+On Linux / macOS:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+    make regen-all
+
+On Windows:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+    build.bat --regen
+
+
+See Also
+--------
+
+* `PEP 659 -- Specializing Adaptive Interpreter <https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/>`_
+* `CPython PR #116385 <https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/116385>`_
+* :ref:`dev-workflow`
diff --git a/developer-workflow/index.rst b/developer-workflow/index.rst
@@ -15,3 +15,4 @@ Development workflow
    c-api
    grammar
    porting
+   bytecode-specialization
diff --git a/index.rst b/index.rst
@@ -43,6 +43,7 @@ contributors through the process.
        * :ref:`communication`
        * :ref:`gitbootcamp`
        * :ref:`devcycle`
+       * :ref:`bytecode-specialization`
        * :ref:`ai-tools`
      -
        * :ref:`tracker`
-Original file line number
+Diff line change
@@ Expand Up / @@ -15,3 +15,4 @@ Development workflow @@
        c-api
        grammar
        porting
+       bytecode-specialization