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:chap_num: 2
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= Program Structure =
[quote, _why, Why's (Poignant) Guide to Ruby]
And my heart glows bright red under my filmy, translucent skin and
they have to administer 10cc of JavaScript to get me to come back. (I
respond well to toxins in the blood.) Man, that stuff will kick the
peaches right out your gills!
In this chapter, we will start to do things that can actually be
called _programming_. We will expand our command of the JavaScript
language beyond the nouns and sentence fragments we've seen so far,
to the point where we can actually express some meaningful prose.
== Expressions and statements ==
(((grammar)))(((JavaScript,syntax)))In Chapter 1, we made
some values and then applied operators to them to get new values.
Creating values like this is an essential part of every JavaScript
program, but it is still only a part. 
A fragment of code that produces a
value is called an _((expression))_. Every value that is written
literally (such as `22` or `"psychoanalysis"`) is an expression. An
expression between parentheses is also an expression, as is a
binary operator applied to two expressions or a unary operator
applied to one.
This shows part of the beauty of a language-based interface.
Expressions can nest in a way very similar to the way subsentences in
human languages are nested—a subsentence can contain its own
subsentences, and so on. This allows us to combine expressions to
express arbitrarily complex computations.
(((statement)))(((semicolon)))(((program)))If an expression
corresponds to a sentence fragment, a JavaScript _statement_
corresponds to a full sentence in a human language. A program is
simply a list of statements.
The simplest kind of statement is an expression with a semicolon after
it. This is a program:
[source,javascript]
It is a useless program, though. An expression can be content to just
produce a value, which can then be used by the enclosing expression. A
statement stands on its own and amounts to something only if it
affects the world. It could display something on the screen—that
counts as changing the world—or it could change the internal state of
the machine in a way that will affect the statements that come after
it. These changes are called _((side effect))s_. The statements in the
previous example just produce the values `1` and `true` and then
immediately throw them away. This leaves no impression on the
world at all. When executing the program, nothing observable happens.
== Semicolons ==
(((semicolon)))In some cases, JavaScript allows you to omit the
semicolon at the end of a statement. In other cases, it has to be
there, or strange things will happen. The rules for when it can be
safely omitted are somewhat complex and error-prone. In this book,
every statement that needs a semicolon will always be terminated by
one. I recommend you do the same in your own programs, at least until
you've learned more about subtleties involved in leaving out
semicolons.
== Variables ==
(((state)))(((side effect)))How does a program keep an internal state?
How does it remember things? We have seen how to produce new values
from old values, but this does not change the old values, and the new
value has to be immediately used or it will dissipate again. To catch
and hold values, JavaScript provides a thing called a _((variable))_.
[source,javascript]
var caught = 5 * 5;
(((var keyword)))And that gives us our second kind of statement. The
special word (_keyword_) `var` indicates that this sentence is going
to define a variable. It is followed by the name of the variable and,
if we want to immediately give it a value, by an `=` operator and an
expression.
The previous statement creates a variable called `caught` and uses it
to grab hold of the number that is produced by multiplying 5 by 5.
After a variable has been defined, its name can be used as an
expression. The value of such an expression is the value
the variable currently holds. Here's an example:
[source,javascript]
var ten = 10;
console.log(ten * ten);
(((variable,naming)))Variable names can be any word that
isn't reserved as a keyword (such as `var`). They may not
include spaces. Digits can also be part of variable names—`catch22` is
a valid name, for example—but the name must not start with a digit. A
variable name cannot include punctuation, except for the characters
“$” and “_”.
When a variable points at a value, that does not mean it is tied to
that value forever. The `=` operator can be used at any time on
existing variables to disconnect them from their current value and
have them point to a new one.
[source,javascript]
var mood = "light";
console.log(mood);
mood = "dark";
console.log(mood);
(((variable!model of)))(((tentacle (variable analogy))))You should
imagine variables as tentacles, rather than boxes. They do not
_contain_ values; they _grasp_ them—two variables can refer to the
same value. A program can access only the values that it still has a hold on. 
When you need to remember something, you grow a
tentacle to hold on to it or you reattach one of your existing
tentacles to it.
image::img/octopus.jpg[alt="Variables as tentacles"]
Let's look at an example. To remember the number of dollars that Luigi still owes
you, you create a variable. And then when he pays back $35, you
give this variable a new value.
[source,javascript]
var luigisDebt = 140;
luigisDebt = luigisDebt - 35;
console.log(luigisDebt);
When you define a variable without giving it a value, the tentacle
has nothing to grasp, so it ends in thin air. If you ask
for the value of an empty variable, you'll get the value `undefined`.
A single `var` statement may define multiple variables. The
definitions must be separated by commas.
[source,javascript]
var one = 1, two = 2;
console.log(one + two);
== Keywords and reserved words ==
(((keyword)))(((reserved words)))(((variable,naming)))Words with
a special meaning, such as `var`, are _keywords_, and they may not 
be used as variable names. There are also a number of (((reserved
words)))words that are “reserved for use” in future versions of
JavaScript. These are also officially not allowed to be used as
variable names, though some JavaScript environments do allow them. The
full list of keywords and reserved words is rather long.
[source,text/plain]
break case catch continue debugger default delete
do else false finally for function if implements
in instanceof interface let new null package private
protected public return static switch throw true
try typeof var void while with yield this
Don't worry about memorizing these, but remember that this might be
the problem when something does not work as expected.
== The environment ==
(((environment)))(((standard environment)))The collection of variables
and their values that exist at a given time is called the
_environment_. When a program starts up, this environment is not
empty. It always contains variables that are part of
the language standard, and most of the time, it has
variables that provide ways to interact with the
surrounding system. For example, in a browser, there are variables
and functions to inspect and influence
the currently loaded website and to read mouse and keyboard input.
== Functions ==
(((Function type)))(((alert function)))(((message box)))A lot of the
values provided in the default environment have the type _function_. A
function is a piece of program wrapped in a value. Such values can be
_applied_ in order to run the wrapped program. For example, in a
browser environment, the variable `alert` holds a function that shows
a little dialog box with a message. It is used like this:
[source,javascript]
alert("Good morning!");
image::img/alert.png[alt="An alert dialog"]
indexsee:[application (of functions),function application]
indexsee:[invoking (of functions),function application]
(((function,application)))Executing a function is called _invoking_,
_calling_, or _applying_ it. You can call a function by putting
parentheses after an expression that produces a function value.
Usually you'll directly refer to a variable that holds a
function. The values between the parentheses are given to the program
inside the function. In the example, the `alert` function uses the
string that we give it as the text to show in the dialog box. Values
given to functions are called _((argument))s_. The `alert` function
needs only one of them, but other functions might need a different
number or different types of arguments.
== The console.log function ==
The `alert` function can be useful as an output device when
experimenting, but clicking away all those little windows will get on
your nerves. In past examples, we've used `console.log` to output
values. Most JavaScript systems (including all modern web browsers and
node.js) provide a `console.log` function that writes out its
arguments to _some_ text output device. In browsers, the output lands
in the JavaScript console. This part of the browser interface is
hidden by default, but most browsers open it when you press F12 or,
on Mac, when you press Command-Option-I. If that does not work,
search through the menus for an item named “web console” or “developer
ifdef::html_target[]
When running the examples, or your own code, on the pages of this
book, `console.log` output will be shown after the example, instead of
in the browser's JavaScript console.
endif::html_target[]
[source,javascript]
var x = 30;
console.log("the value of x is", x);
// → the value of x is 30
Though variable names cannot contain dots, 
`console.log` clearly has one. This is because `console.log` isn't 
a simple variable. It is actually an expression that
retrieves the `log` field from the value held by the `console`
variable. We will find out exactly what this means in Chapter 4.
== Return values ==
(((side effect)))(((return value)))(((max function)))Showing a dialog
box or writing text to the screen is a _side effect_. A lot of functions
are useful because of the side effects they produce. Functions can also
produce values, and in that case, they don't
need to have a side effect to be useful. For example, the
function `Math.max` takes any number of number values and gives back the
[source,javascript]
console.log(Math.max(2, 4));
(((min function)))When a function produces a value, it is said to
_return_ that value. Anything that produces a value is an expression
in JavaScript, which means function calls can be used within larger
expressions. Here a call to `Math.min`, which is the opposite of
`Math.max`, is used as an input to the plus operator:
[source,javascript]
console.log(Math.min(2, 4) + 100);
The next chapter explains how we can write our own functions.
== prompt and confirm ==
(((confirm function)))Browser environments contain other functions 
besides `alert` for popping up windows. You can ask the user an
“OK”/“Cancel” question using `confirm`. This returns a boolean: `true`
if the user clicks OK and `false` if the user clicks Cancel.
[source,javascript]
confirm("Shall we, then?");
image::img/confirm.png[alt="A confirm dialog"]
(((prompt function)))(((text input)))The `prompt` function can be used
to ask an “open” question. The first argument is the question; the
second one is the text that the user starts with. A line of text can
be typed into the dialog window, and the function will return this as
[source,javascript]
prompt("Tell me everything you know.", "...");
image::img/prompt.png[alt="An prompt dialog"]
These two functions aren't used much in modern web programming, mostly
because you have no control over the way the resulting windows look,
but they are useful for toy programs and experiments.
== Control flow ==
(((program)))(((control flow)))When your program contains more than
one statement, the statements are executed, predictably, from top to
bottom. As a basic example, this program has two statements. The first
one asks the user for a number, and the second, which is executed
afterward, shows the square of that number. 
[source,javascript]
var theNumber = Number(prompt("Pick a number", ""));
alert("Your number is the square root of " +
      theNumber * theNumber);
(((Number function)))(((String function)))(((Boolean
function))))(((boolean conversion)))The function `Number` converts a
value to a number. We need that conversion because the result of `prompt` is a
string value, and we want a number. There are similar functions called
`String` and `Boolean` that convert values to those types.
Here is the rather trivial schematic representation of straight
control flow:
image::img/controlflow-straight.svg[alt="Trivial control flow"]
== Conditional execution ==
(((control flow)))(((conditional execution)))Executing statements in
straight-line order isn't the only option we have. An alternative is
_conditional execution_, where we choose between two
different routes based on a boolean value.
image::img/controlflow-if.svg[alt="Conditional control flow"]
Conditional execution is written with the `if` keyword in JavaScript.
In the simple case, we just want some code to be executed if, and only
if, a certain condition holds. For example, in the previous program,
we might want to show the square of the input only if the input is
actually a number.
[source,javascript]
var theNumber = Number(prompt("Pick a number", ""));
if (!isNaN(theNumber))
  alert("Your number is the square root of " +
        theNumber * theNumber);
With this modification, if you enter “cheese”, no output will be shown.
(((if keyword)))The keyword `if` executes or skips a
statement depending on the value of a boolean expression. The deciding
expression is written after the keywords, between parentheses, followed
by the statement to execute.
The `isNaN` function is a standard JavaScript function that returns `true` if the
argument it is given is `NaN`. The `Number` function happens to return
`NaN` when you give it a string that doesn't represent a valid number.
Thus, the condition translates to “unless `theNumber` is not-a-number, do
(((else keyword)))You won't always just have code that executes
when a condition holds true. Often, you'll also need code that handles the
other case, when the condition doesn't hold. This alternate path is represented by the
second arrow in the previous diagram. The `else` keyword can be used,
together with `if`, to create two separate, parallel execution paths.
[source,javascript]
var theNumber = Number(prompt("Pick a number", ""));
if (!isNaN(theNumber))
  alert("Your number is the square root of " +
        theNumber * theNumber);
  alert("Hey. Why didn't you give me a number?");
If we have more than two paths to choose from, multiple
`if`/`else` pairs can be “chained” together. Here's an example:
[source,javascript]
var num = Number(prompt("Pick a number", "0"));
if (num < 10)
  alert("Small");
else if (num < 100)
  alert("Medium");
  alert("Large");
The program will first check whether `num` is less than 10. If it is,
it chooses that branch, shows `"Small"`, and is done. If it isn't, it
takes the `else` branch, which itself contains a second `if`. If the
second condition (`< 100`) holds, that means the number is between 10
and 100, and `"Medium"` is shown. If it doesn't, the second, and last,
`else` branch is chosen.
The flow chart for this program looks something like this:
image::img/controlflow-nested-if.svg[alt="Nested if control flow"]
== while and do loops ==
(((looping)))Consider a program that prints all even numbers from
0 to 12. One way to write this is as follows:
[source,javascript]
console.log(0);
console.log(2);
console.log(4);
console.log(6);
console.log(8);
console.log(10);
console.log(12);
(((control flow)))That works, but the idea of writing a program is to
make something _less_ work, not more. If we needed all even numbers
less than 1,000, the previous would be unworkable. What we need is a
way to repeat some code—a _loop_.
image::img/controlflow-loop.svg[alt="Loop control flow"]
Looping control flow allows us to go back to some point in the program
where we were before and repeat it in the context of our current
program state. If we combine this with a variable that counts, we can
[source,javascript]
var number = 0;
while (number <= 12) {
  console.log(number);
  number = number + 2;
//   … etcetera
(((while loop)))A statement starting with the keyword `while` creates a
loop. The word `while` is followed by an expression in parentheses and
then a statement, much like `if`. The loop executes that statement as 
long as the expression produces a value that
is `true` when converted to boolean type.
((({} block)))(((statement)))(((block (of statements))))In this loop,
we want to both print the current number and add two to our
variable. Whenever we want to execute multiple statements inside a
loop, we wrap them in braces (`{` and `}`). Braces do for statements
what parentheses do for expressions: they group them together, making
them count as a single statement. A sequence of statements wrapped in
braces is called a _block_.
Many JavaScript programmers wrap every single loop or `if` body in
braces. They do this both for the sake of consistency and to avoid
having to add or remove braces when changing the number of statements
in the body later. In this book, I will write most single-statement
bodies without braces, since I value brevity. You are free to go with
whichever style you prefer.
(((variable)))(((state)))The variable `number` demonstrates
the way a variable can track the progress of a program. Every time the
loop repeats, `number` is incremented by `2`. Then, at the beginning of
every repetition, it is compared with the number `12` to decide
whether the program has done all the work it intended to do.
(((exponentiation)))As an example that actually does something useful,
we can now write a program that calculates and shows the value of
2^10^ (2 to the 10th power). We use two variables: one to keep
track of our result and one to count how often we have multiplied this
result by 2. The loop tests whether the second variable has reached 10
yet and then updates both variables.
[source,javascript]
var result = 1;
var counter = 0;
while (counter < 10) {
  result = result * 2;
  counter = counter + 1;
console.log(result);
The counter could also start at `1` and check for `<= 10`, but, for
reasons that will become apparent later, it is a good idea to get used
to counting from 0.
(((do loop)))(((control flow)))The `do` loop is a control structure 
similar to the `while` loop. It differs only on one point: a `do` loop
always executes its body at least once, and it starts testing whether
it should stop only after that first execution. To reflect this, the test appears 
after the body of the loop:
[source,javascript]
  var name = prompt("Who are you?");
} while (!name);
console.log(name);
This program will force you to enter a name. It will ask again and again until
it gets something that is not an empty string. (Applying the `!`
operator will convert a value to boolean type before negating it, and
all strings except `""` convert to `true`.)
== Indenting Code ==
You've probably noticed the spaces I put in front of some
statements. In JavaScript, these are not required—the computer will accept the
program just fine without them. In fact, even the line breaks in
programs are optional. You could write a program as a single long line if
you felt like it. The role of the ((indentation)) inside blocks is to
make the structure of the code stand out. In complex code, where new blocks
are opened inside other blocks, it can become hard to see
where one block ends and another begins. With proper indentation, the
visual shape of a program corresponds to the shape of the blocks
inside it. I like to use two spaces for every open block, but tastes
differ—some people use four spaces, and some people use tab
characters.
== for loops ==
Many loops follow the pattern seen in the previous `while` examples.
First, a “counter” variable is created to track
the progress of the loop. Then comes a `while` loop, whose test
expression usually checks whether the counter has reached some
boundary yet. At the end of the loop body, the counter is updated to
track progress.
Because this pattern is so common, JavaScript and similar languages
provide a slightly shorter and more comprehensive form, the `for` loop.
[source,javascript]
for (var number = 0; number <= 12; number = number + 2)
  console.log(number);
//   … etcetera
(((for loop)))(((control flow)))(((state)))This program is exactly
equivalent to the earlier even-number-printing example. The only
change is that all the statements that are related to the “state” of
the loop are now on one line.
The parentheses after a `for` keyword must contain two
semicolons. The part before the first semicolon _initializes_ the
loop, usually by defining a variable. The second part is the
expression that _checks_ whether the loop must continue. The
final part _updates_ the state of the loop after every iteration. In
most cases, this is shorter and clearer than a `while` construct.
Here is the code that computes 2^10^, using `for` instead of `while`:
[source,javascript]
var result = 1;
for (var counter = 0; counter < 10; counter = counter + 1)
  result = result * 2;
console.log(result);
(((indentation)))Note that even though no block is opened with a `{`, the
statement in the loop is still indented two spaces to make it clear
that it “belongs” to the line before it.
== Breaking Out of a Loop ==
(((looping,termination)))(((break keyword)))Having its condition
produce `false` is not the only way a loop can finish. There is a
special statement called `break` that has the effect of immediately
jumping out of the enclosing loop.
This program illustrates the `break` statement. It finds the first number
that is both greater than or equal to 20 and divisible by 7.
[source,javascript]
for (var current = 20; ; current++) {
  if (current % 7 == 0)
console.log(current);
(((remainder operation)))(((% operator)))The trick with the remainder
(`%`) operator is an easy way to test whether a number is divisible by
another number. If it is, the remainder of their division is zero.
The `for` construct in the example does not have a part that checks
for the end of the loop. This means that the loop will never stop unless
the `break` statement inside is executed.
If you were to leave out that `break` statement or accidentally write a
condition that always produces `true`, your program would get stuck in 
an _((infinite loop))_. A program stuck in an infinite 
loop will never finish running, which is usually a bad thing.
ifdef::html_target[]
If you create an infinite loop in one of the examples on these pages,
you'll usually be asked whether you want to stop the script after a
few seconds. If that fails, you will have to close the tab that you're
working in, or on some browsers close your whole browser, in order to
endif::html_target[]
== Updating variables succinctly ==
(((assignment)))(((+= operator)))(((-= operator)))(((/=
operator)))(((*= operator)))(((state)))Especially when
looping, a program often needs to “update” a variable with a value based
on that variable's previous value.
// test: no
[source,javascript]
counter = counter + 1;
JavaScript provides a shortcut for this:
// test: no
[source,javascript]
counter += 1;
Similar shortcuts work for many other operators, such as `result *= 2` to
double `result` or `counter -= 1` to count downward.
This allows us to shorten our counting example a little more.
[source,javascript]
for (var number = 0; number <= 12; number += 2)
  console.log(number);
(((++ operator)))(((-- operator)))For `counter += 1` and `counter -=
1`, there are even shorter equivalents: `counter++` and `counter--`.
== Dispatching on a value with switch ==
It is common for code to look like this:
// test: no
[source,javascript]
if (variable == "value1") action1();
else if (variable == "value2") action2();
else if (variable == "value3") action3();
else defaultAction();
(((dispatch)))(((switch keyword)))There is a construct called `switch`
that is intended to solve such a “dispatch” in a more direct way.
Unfortunately, the syntax JavaScript uses for this (which it inherited
from the C/Java line of programming languages) is somewhat
awkward—a chain of `if` statements often looks better. Here
is an example:
[source,javascript]
switch (prompt("What is the weather like?")) {
  case "rainy":
    console.log("Remember to bring an umbrella.");
  case "sunny":
    console.log("Dress lightly.");
  case "cloudy":
    console.log("Go outside.");
    console.log("Unknown weather type!");
(((case keyword)))(((default keyword)))You may put any number of `case`
labels inside the block opened by `switch`. The program will
jump to the label that corresponds to the value that `switch` was
given or to `default` if no matching value is found. It starts
executing statements there, even if they're under another label, until
it reaches a `break` statement. In some cases, such as the `"sunny"`
case in the example, this can be used to share some code between cases
(it recommends going outside for both sunny and cloudy weather). But
beware: it is easy to forget such a `break`, which will cause the
program to execute code you do not want executed.
== Capitalization ==
Variable names may not contain spaces, yet it is often helpful to use
multiple words to clearly describe what the variable represents. These are
pretty much your choices for writing a variable name with several words in it:
fuzzylittleturtle
fuzzy_little_turtle
FuzzyLittleTurtle
fuzzyLittleTurtle
(((capitalization)))The first style can be hard to read. Personally, I
like using underscores, though that style is a little painful to type.
However, the standard JavaScript functions, and most JavaScript
programmers, follow the bottom style—they capitalize every word except
the first. It is not hard to get used to little things like that, and
code with mixed naming styles can be jarring to read, so we will just
follow this convention.
(((Number function)))(((constructor)))In a few cases, such as the
`Number` function, the first letter of a variable is also capitalized.
This was done to mark this function as a constructor. What a
constructor is will become clear in Chapter 6. For now, the important
thing is not to be bothered by this apparent lack of consistency.
== Comments ==
Often, raw code does not convey all the information you want a program
to convey to human readers, or it conveys it in such a cryptic way
that people might not understand it. At other times,
you might just feel poetic or want to include some thoughts as part
of your program. This is what _((comment))s_ are for.
A comment is a piece of text that is part of a program but is completely
ignored by the computer. JavaScript has two ways of writing comments.
To write a single-line comment, you can use two slash characters
(`//`) and then the comment text after it.
// test: no
[source,javascript]
var accountBalance = calculateBalance(account);
// It's a green hollow where a river sings
accountBalance.adjust();
// Madly catching white tatters in the grass.
var report = new Report();
// Where the sun on the proud mountain rings:
addToReport(accountBalance, report);
// It's a little valley, foaming like light in a glass.
A `//` comment goes only to the end of the line. A section of text
between `/*` and `*/` will be ignored, regardless of whether it
contains line breaks. This is often useful for adding blocks of
information about a file or a chunk of program.
[source,javascript]
 I first found this number scrawled on the back of one of
 my notebooks a few years ago. Since then, it has
 occasionally dropped by, showing up in phone numbers and
 the serial numbers of products that I bought. It
 obviously likes me, so I've decided to keep it.
var theNumber = 11213;
== Summary ==
You now know that a program is built out of statements, which
themselves sometimes contain more statements. Statements tend to
contain expressions, which themselves can be built out of smaller
expressions.
Putting statements after one another gives you a program that is
executed from top to bottom. You can introduce disturbances in the flow of
control by using conditional (`if`, `else`, and `switch`) and looping
(`while`, `do`, and `for`) statements.
Variables can be used to file pieces of data under a name, and they are
useful for tracking state in your program. The environment is the set
of variables that are defined in a program. JavaScript systems always
put a number of useful standard variables into your environment.
Functions are special values that encapsulate a piece of program. You
can invoke them by writing `functionName(argument1, argument2)`, which
is an expression that may produce a value.
== Exercises ==
If you are unsure how to try your solutions to exercises, refer
 to the end of the introduction.
Each exercise starts with a problem description. Read that and try to
solve the exercise. If you run into problems, consider reading
the hints after the exercise. Full solutions to the exercises are not
included in this book, but you can find them online at _http://eloquentjavascript.net/exercises.html_. If
you want to learn, I recommend looking at these only after
you've solved the exercise, or at least after you've attacked it long and hard
enough to have a slight headache.
=== Looping a triangle ===
Write a program that makes seven calls to `console.log` to output the
following triangle:
ifdef::html_target[]
[source,javascript]
// Your code here.
// (Click code listings to edit them.)
endif::html_target[]
!!solution!!
You can start with a program that simply prints out the numbers 1 to
7, which you can derive by making a few modifications to the
even-number-printing example given earlier in the chapter, when the
`for` loop was introduced.
Now consider the equivalence between numbers and strings of hash
characters. You can go from 1 to 2 by adding 1 (`+= 1`). You can go
from `"#"` to `"##"` by adding a character (`+= "#"`). Thus, your
solution can closely follow the number-printing program.
!!solution!!
=== FizzBuzz ===
Write a program that uses `console.log` to print all the numbers from
1 to 100, with two exceptions. For numbers divisible by 3, print
`"Fizz"` instead of the number, and for numbers divisible by
5 (and not 3), print `"Buzz"` instead.
When you have that working, modify your program to print `"FizzBuzz"`
for numbers that are divisible by both 3 and 5.
(This is actually an interview question that has been claimed to weed
out a significant percentage of programmer candidates. So if you
solved it, you're now allowed to feel good about yourself.)
ifdef::html_target[]
[source,javascript]
// Your code here.
endif::html_target[]
!!solution!!
Going over the numbers is clearly a looping job, and selecting what to
print is a matter of conditional execution. Remember the trick of
using the remainder (`%`) operator for checking whether a number is
divisible by another number (has a remainder of zero).
In the first version, there are three possible outcomes for
every number, so you'll have to create an `if`/`else if`/`else` chain.
The second version of the program has a straightforward solution and a
clever one. The simple way is to add another “branch” to precisely test
the given condition. For the clever method, build up a string containing
the word or words to output, and print either this word or the number
if there is no word, potentially by making elegant use of the `||`
!!solution!!
=== Chess board ===
Write a program that creates a string that represents an 8×8 grid,
using newline characters to separate lines. At each position of the
grid there is either a space or a “#” character. The characters
should form a chess board.
Passing this string to `console.log` should look like this:
When you have a program that generates this pattern, define a variable `size = 8` 
and change the program so that it works for any `size`, outputting a grid of the 
given width and height.
ifdef::html_target[]
[source,javascript]
// Your code here.
endif::html_target[]
!!solution!!
The string can be built by starting with an empty one (`""`) and
repeatedly adding characters. A newline character is written `"\n"`.
Use `console.log` to inspect the output of your program.
To work with two dimensions, you will need a loop inside of a
loop. Put braces around the bodies of both loops to make it easy to
see where they start and end. Try to properly indent these bodies. The
order of the loops must follow the order in which we build up the
string (line by line, left to right, top to bottom). So the outer loop
handles the lines and the inner loop handles the characters on a line.
You'll need two variables to track your progress. To know whether to
put a space or a hash sign at a given position, you could test whether
the sum of the two counters is even (`% 2`).
Terminating a line by adding a newline character happens after the
line has been built up, so do this after the inner loop but inside of the outer
!!solution!!
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