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# Copyright (C) 2001 Python Software Foundation
# This file is distributed under the same license as the Python package.
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msgid "HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package"
msgid "Introduction"
"You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources "
"with Python:"
"`Basic Authentication <https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www."
"voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`__"
msgid "A tutorial on *Basic Authentication*, with examples in Python."
"**urllib.request** is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource "
"Locators). It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the *urlopen* "
"function. This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of different "
"protocols. It also offers a slightly more complex interface for handling "
"common situations - like basic authentication, cookies, proxies and so on. "
"These are provided by objects called handlers and openers."
"urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many \"URL schemes\" (identified "
"by the string before the ``\":\"`` in URL - for example ``\"ftp\"`` is the "
"URL scheme of ``\"ftp://python.org/\"``) using their associated network "
"protocols (e.g. FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common case, "
"For straightforward situations *urlopen* is very easy to use. But as soon as "
"you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP URLs, you will "
"need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer Protocol. The most "
"comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is :rfc:`2616`. This is a "
"technical document and not intended to be easy to read. This HOWTO aims to "
"illustrate using *urllib*, with enough detail about HTTP to help you "
"through. It is not intended to replace the :mod:`urllib.request` docs, but "
"is supplementary to them."
msgid "Fetching URLs"
msgid "The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows::"
"import urllib.request\n"
"with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:\n"
"   html = response.read()"
"If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary "
"location, you can do so via the :func:`shutil.copyfileobj` and :func:"
"`tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile` functions::"
"import shutil\n"
"import tempfile\n"
"import urllib.request\n"
"with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:\n"
"    with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:\n"
"        shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)\n"
"with open(tmp_file.name) as html:\n"
"Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:' URL "
"we could have used a URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.).  However, "
"it's the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, "
"concentrating on HTTP."
"HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and "
"servers send responses. urllib.request mirrors this with a ``Request`` "
"object which represents the HTTP request you are making. In its simplest "
"form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you want to fetch. "
"Calling ``urlopen`` with this Request object returns a response object for "
"the URL requested. This response is a file-like object, which means you can "
"for example call ``.read()`` on the response::"
"import urllib.request\n"
"req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')\n"
"with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:\n"
"   the_page = response.read()"
"Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to handle "
"all URL schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like so::"
msgid "req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')"
"In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects allow "
"you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.  Second, you "
"can pass extra information (\"metadata\") *about* the data or about the "
"request itself, to the server - this information is sent as HTTP "
"\"headers\".  Let's look at each of these in turn."
msgid "Data"
"Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a CGI "
"(Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application). With HTTP, this "
"is often done using what's known as a **POST** request. This is often what "
"your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you filled in on the web. "
"Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can use a POST to transmit "
"arbitrary data to your own application. In the common case of HTML forms, "
"the data needs to be encoded in a standard way, and then passed to the "
"Request object as the ``data`` argument. The encoding is done using a "
"function from the :mod:`urllib.parse` library. ::"
"import urllib.parse\n"
"import urllib.request\n"
"url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'\n"
"values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',\n"
"          'location' : 'Northampton',\n"
"          'language' : 'Python' }\n"
"data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)\n"
"data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes\n"
"req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)\n"
"with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:\n"
"   the_page = response.read()"
"Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g. for file upload from "
"HTML forms - see `HTML Specification, Form Submission <https://www.w3.org/TR/"
"REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13>`_ for more details)."
"If you do not pass the ``data`` argument, urllib uses a **GET** request. One "
"way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests often have "
"\"side-effects\": they change the state of the system in some way (for "
"example by placing an order with the website for a hundredweight of tinned "
"spam to be delivered to your door).  Though the HTTP standard makes it clear "
"that POSTs are intended to *always* cause side-effects, and GET requests "
"*never* to cause side-effects, nothing prevents a GET request from having "
"side-effects, nor a POST requests from having no side-effects. Data can also "
"be passed in an HTTP GET request by encoding it in the URL itself."
msgid "This is done as follows::"
">>> import urllib.request\n"
">>> import urllib.parse\n"
">>> data = {}\n"
">>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'\n"
">>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'\n"
">>> data['language'] = 'Python'\n"
">>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)\n"
">>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.\n"
"name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton\n"
">>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'\n"
">>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values\n"
">>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)"
"Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ``?`` to the URL, followed "
"by the encoded values."
msgid "Headers"
"We'll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add "
"headers to your HTTP request."
"Some websites [#]_ dislike being browsed by programs, or send different "
"versions to different browsers [#]_. By default urllib identifies itself as "
"``Python-urllib/x.y`` (where ``x`` and ``y`` are the major and minor version "
"numbers of the Python release, e.g. ``Python-urllib/2.5``), which may "
"confuse the site, or just plain not work. The way a browser identifies "
"itself is through the ``User-Agent`` header [#]_. When you create a Request "
"object you can pass a dictionary of headers in. The following example makes "
"the same request as above, but identifies itself as a version of Internet "
"Explorer [#]_. ::"
"import urllib.parse\n"
"import urllib.request\n"
"url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'\n"
"user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'\n"
"values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',\n"
"          'location': 'Northampton',\n"
"          'language': 'Python' }\n"
"headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}\n"
"data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)\n"
"data = data.encode('ascii')\n"
"req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)\n"
"with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:\n"
"   the_page = response.read()"
"The response also has two useful methods. See the section on `info and "
"geturl`_ which comes after we have a look at what happens when things go "
msgid "Handling Exceptions"
"*urlopen* raises :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` when it cannot handle a "
"response (though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as :exc:"
"`ValueError`, :exc:`TypeError` etc. may also be raised)."
":exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` is the subclass of :exc:`~urllib.error."
"URLError` raised in the specific case of HTTP URLs."
msgid "The exception classes are exported from the :mod:`urllib.error` module."
msgid "URLError"
"Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no route "
"to the specified server), or the specified server doesn't exist.  In this "
"case, the exception raised will have a 'reason' attribute, which is a tuple "
"containing an error code and a text error message."
msgid "e.g. ::"
">>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')\n"
">>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)\n"
"... except urllib.error.URLError as e:\n"
"...     print(e.reason)\n"
"(4, 'getaddrinfo failed')"
msgid "HTTPError"
"Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric \"status code\". "
"Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil the "
"request. The default handlers will handle some of these responses for you "
"(for example, if the response is a \"redirection\" that requests the client "
"fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle that for you). "
"For those it can't handle, urlopen will raise an :exc:`~urllib.error."
"HTTPError`. Typical errors include '404' (page not found), '403' (request "
"forbidden), and '401' (authentication required)."
"See section 10 of :rfc:`2616` for a reference on all the HTTP error codes."
"The :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` instance raised will have an integer "
"'code' attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server."
msgid "Error Codes"
"Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range), and "
"codes in the 100--299 range indicate success, you will usually only see "
"error codes in the 400--599 range."
":attr:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses` is a useful dictionary "
"of response codes that shows all the response codes used by :rfc:`2616`. An "
"excerpt from the dictionary is shown below ::"
"responses = {\n"
"    ...\n"
"    <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),\n"
"    ...\n"
"    <HTTPStatus.FORBIDDEN: 403>: ('Forbidden',\n"
"                                  'Request forbidden -- authorization will "
"                                  'not help'),\n"
"    <HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND: 404>: ('Not Found',\n"
"                                  'Nothing matches the given URI'),\n"
"    ...\n"
"    <HTTPStatus.IM_A_TEAPOT: 418>: (\"I'm a Teapot\",\n"
"                                    'Server refuses to brew coffee because "
"                                    'it is a teapot'),\n"
"    ...\n"
"    <HTTPStatus.SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE: 503>: ('Service Unavailable',\n"
"                                            'The server cannot process the "
"                                            'request due to a high load'),\n"
"    ...\n"
"When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code "
"*and* an error page. You can use the :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` instance "
"as a response on the page returned. This means that as well as the code "
"attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as returned by the "
"``urllib.response`` module::"
">>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')\n"
">>> try:\n"
"...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)\n"
"... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:\n"
"...     print(e.code)\n"
"...     print(e.read())\n"
"b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC \"-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN\"\n"
"  \"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional."
"dtd\">\\n\\n\\n<html\n"
"  <title>Page Not Found</title>\\n\n"
msgid "Wrapping it Up"
"So if you want to be prepared for :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` *or* :exc:"
"`~urllib.error.URLError` there are two basic approaches. I prefer the second "
"approach."
msgid "Number 1"
"from urllib.request import Request, urlopen\n"
"from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError\n"
"req = Request(someurl)\n"
"    response = urlopen(req)\n"
"except HTTPError as e:\n"
"    print('The server couldn\\'t fulfill the request.')\n"
"    print('Error code: ', e.code)\n"
"except URLError as e:\n"
"    print('We failed to reach a server.')\n"
"    print('Reason: ', e.reason)\n"
"    # everything is fine"
"The ``except HTTPError`` *must* come first, otherwise ``except URLError`` "
"will *also* catch an :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError`."
msgid "Number 2"
"from urllib.request import Request, urlopen\n"
"from urllib.error import URLError\n"
"req = Request(someurl)\n"
"    response = urlopen(req)\n"
"except URLError as e:\n"
"    if hasattr(e, 'reason'):\n"
"        print('We failed to reach a server.')\n"
"        print('Reason: ', e.reason)\n"
"    elif hasattr(e, 'code'):\n"
"        print('The server couldn\\'t fulfill the request.')\n"
"        print('Error code: ', e.code)\n"
"    # everything is fine"
msgid "info and geturl"
"The response returned by urlopen (or the :exc:`~urllib.error.HTTPError` "
"instance) has two useful methods :meth:`!info` and :meth:`!geturl` and is "
"defined in the module :mod:`urllib.response`."
"**geturl** - this returns the real URL of the page fetched. This is useful "
"because ``urlopen`` (or the opener object used) may have followed a "
"redirect. The URL of the page fetched may not be the same as the URL "
"requested."
"**info** - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the page "
"fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server. It is currently an :"
"class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` instance."
"Typical headers include 'Content-length', 'Content-type', and so on. See the "
"`Quick Reference to HTTP Headers <https://jkorpela.fi/http.html>`_ for a "
"useful listing of HTTP headers with brief explanations of their meaning and "
msgid "Openers and Handlers"
"When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps "
"confusingly named :class:`urllib.request.OpenerDirector`). Normally we have "
"been using the default opener - via ``urlopen`` - but you can create custom "
"openers. Openers use handlers. All the \"heavy lifting\" is done by the "
"handlers. Each handler knows how to open URLs for a particular URL scheme "
"(http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of URL opening, for example "
"HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies."
"You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific "
"handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies, or to "
"get an opener that does not handle redirections."
"To create an opener, instantiate an ``OpenerDirector``, and then call ``."
"add_handler(some_handler_instance)`` repeatedly."
"Alternatively, you can use ``build_opener``, which is a convenience function "
"for creating opener objects with a single function call.  ``build_opener`` "
"adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick way to add more and/"
"or override the default handlers."
"Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies, "
"authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations."
"``install_opener`` can be used to make an ``opener`` object the (global) "
"default opener. This means that calls to ``urlopen`` will use the opener you "
"have installed."
"Opener objects have an ``open`` method, which can be called directly to "
"fetch urls in the same way as the ``urlopen`` function: there's no need to "
"call ``install_opener``, except as a convenience."
msgid "Basic Authentication"
"To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the "
"``HTTPBasicAuthHandler``. For a more detailed discussion of this subject -- "
"including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the `Basic "
"Authentication Tutorial <https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://"
"www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`__."
"When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as the "
"401 error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the "
"authentication scheme and a 'realm'. The header looks like: ``WWW-"
"Authenticate: SCHEME realm=\"REALM\"``."
msgid "e.g."
msgid "WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm=\"cPanel Users\""
"The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and "
"password for the realm included as a header in the request. This is 'basic "
"authentication'. In order to simplify this process we can create an instance "
"of ``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` and an opener to use this handler."
"The ``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` uses an object called a password manager to "
"handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames. If you "
"know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the server), "
"then you can use a ``HTTPPasswordMgr``. Frequently one doesn't care what the "
"realm is. In that case, it is convenient to use "
"``HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm``. This allows you to specify a default "
"username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of you "
"providing an alternative combination for a specific realm. We indicate this "
"by providing ``None`` as the realm argument to the ``add_password`` method."
"The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication. URLs "
"\"deeper\" than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match. ::"
"# create a password manager\n"
"password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()\n"
"# Add the username and password.\n"
"# If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.\n"
"top_level_url = \"http://example.com/foo/\"\n"
"password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)\n"
"handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)\n"
"# create \"opener\" (OpenerDirector instance)\n"
"opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)\n"
"# use the opener to fetch a URL\n"
"opener.open(a_url)\n"
"# Install the opener.\n"
"# Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.\n"
"urllib.request.install_opener(opener)"
"In the above example we only supplied our ``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`` to "
"``build_opener``. By default openers have the handlers for normal situations "
"-- ``ProxyHandler`` (if a proxy setting such as an :envvar:`!http_proxy` "
"environment variable is set), ``UnknownHandler``, ``HTTPHandler``, "
"``HTTPDefaultErrorHandler``, ``HTTPRedirectHandler``, ``FTPHandler``, "
"``FileHandler``, ``DataHandler``, ``HTTPErrorProcessor``."
"``top_level_url`` is in fact *either* a full URL (including the 'http:' "
"scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g. "
"``\"http://example.com/\"`` *or* an \"authority\" (i.e. the hostname, "
"optionally including the port number) e.g. ``\"example.com\"`` or "
"``\"example.com:8080\"`` (the latter example includes a port number).  The "
"authority, if present, must NOT contain the \"userinfo\" component - for "
"example ``\"joe:password@example.com\"`` is not correct."
msgid "Proxies"
"**urllib** will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those. This is "
"through the ``ProxyHandler``, which is part of the normal handler chain when "
"a proxy setting is detected.  Normally that's a good thing, but there are "
"occasions when it may not be helpful [#]_. One way to do this is to setup "
"our own ``ProxyHandler``, with no proxies defined. This is done using "
"similar steps to setting up a `Basic Authentication`_ handler: ::"
">>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})\n"
">>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)\n"
">>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)"
"Currently ``urllib.request`` *does not* support fetching of ``https`` "
"locations through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by extending urllib."
"request as shown in the recipe [#]_."
"``HTTP_PROXY`` will be ignored if a variable ``REQUEST_METHOD`` is set; see "
"the documentation on :func:`~urllib.request.getproxies`."
msgid "Sockets and Layers"
"The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.  urllib "
"uses the :mod:`http.client` library, which in turn uses the socket library."
"As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a "
"response before timing out. This can be useful in applications which have to "
"fetch web pages. By default the socket module has *no timeout* and can hang. "
"Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the http.client or urllib."
"request levels. However, you can set the default timeout globally for all "
"sockets using ::"
"import socket\n"
"import urllib.request\n"
"# timeout in seconds\n"
"timeout = 10\n"
"socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)\n"
"# this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout\n"
"# we have set in the socket module\n"
"req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')\n"
"response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)"
msgid "Footnotes"
msgstr "Примечания"
msgid "This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee."
msgid "Google for example."
"Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design - building sites "
"using web standards is much more sensible. Unfortunately a lot of sites "
"still send different versions to different browsers."
"The user agent for MSIE 6 is *'Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT "
"5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)'*"
"For details of more HTTP request headers, see `Quick Reference to HTTP "
"Headers`_."
"In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work. If you "
"attempt to fetch *localhost* URLs through this proxy it blocks them. IE is "
"set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on. In order to test scripts "
"with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from using the proxy."
"urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): `ASPN Cookbook Recipe <https://"
"code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-"
"method/>`_."
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