C++ Language Reference Lexical Conventions Overview of File Translation Character Sets2 Tokens (C++) Comments (C++) Identifiers (C++) Keywords (C++) auto Keyword Punctuators (C++) Numeric, Boolean and Pointer Literals (C++) String and Character Literals (C++) User-Defined Literals (C++) Basic Concepts (C++) Declarations and Definitions (C++) Overview of Declarators Specifiers Point of declaration in C++ Initializers Aliases and typedefs (C++) using Declaration Resolving ambiguous declarations (C++) Storage classes (C++) const (C++) constexpr (C++) volatile (C++) auto (C++) decltype (C++) Attributes2 Scope (Visual C++) Program and Linkage (C++) Types of Linkage Linkage in Names with File Scope Linkage in Names with Class Scope Linkage in Names with Block Scope Names with No Linkage Using extern to Specify Linkage Startup and Termination (C++) main: Program Startup Using wmain Instead of main Argument Definitions Wildcard Expansion Parsing C++ Command-Line Arguments Customizing C++ Command-Line Processing main Function Restrictions Program Termination exit Function abort Function return Statement in Program Termination (C++) Additional Startup Considerations Additional Termination Considerations Using exit or return Using atexit Using abort Lvalues and Rvalues (Visual C++) Temporary Objects Alignment (C++ Declarations) alignof and alignas (C++) Trivial, standard-layout, and POD types Fundamental Types (C++) Data Type Ranges nullptr void (C++) bool (C++) false (C++) true (C++) char, wchar_t, char16_t, char32_t __int8, __int16, __int32, __int64 __m64 __m128 __m128d __m128i __ptr32, __ptr64 Numerical Limits (C++) Integer Limits Floating Limits Standard Conversions C++ Built-in Operators, Precedence and Associativity __alignof Operator __uuidof Operator Additive Operators: + and - Address-of Operator: & Assignment Operators Bitwise AND Operator: & Bitwise Exclusive OR Operator: ^ Bitwise Inclusive OR Operator: | Cast Operator: () Comma Operator: , Conditional Operator: ? : delete Operator (C++) Equality Operators: == and != Explicit Type Conversion Operator: () Function Call Operator: () Indirection Operator: * Left Shift and Right Shift Operators (>> and <<) Logical AND Operator: && Logical Negation Operator: ! Logical OR Operator: || Member Access Operators: . and -> Multiplicative Operators and the Modulus Operator new Operator (C++) One's Complement Operator: ~ Pointer-to-Member Operators: .* and ->* Postfix Increment and Decrement Operators: ++ and -- Prefix Increment and Decrement Operators: ++ and -- Relational Operators: <, >, <=, and >= Scope Resolution Operator: :: sizeof Operator Subscript Operator: typeid Operator Unary Plus and Negation Operators: + and - Expressions (C++) Types of Expressions Primary Expressions Ellipses and Variadic Templates Postfix Expressions Expressions with Unary Operators Expressions with Binary Operators C++ Constant Expressions Semantics of Expressions Casting Casting Operators dynamic_cast Operator bad_cast Exception static_cast Operator const_cast Operator reinterpret_cast Operator Run-Time Type Information bad_typeid Exception type_info Class Statements (C++) Overview of C++ Statements Labeled Statements Expression Statement Null Statement Compound Statements (Blocks) Selection Statements (C++) if-else Statement (C++) __if_exists Statement __if_not_exists Statement switch Statement (C++) Iteration Statements (C++) while Statement (C++) do-while Statement (C++) for Statement (C++) Range-based for Statement (C++) Jump Statements (C++) break Statement (C++) continue Statement (C++) return Statement (C++) goto Statement (C++) Transfers of Control Namespaces (C++) Enumerations (C++) Unions Functions (C++) Functions with Variable Argument Lists (C++) Function Overloading Explicitly Defaulted and Deleted Functions Argument-Dependent Name (Koenig) Lookup on Functions Default Arguments Inline Functions (C++) Operator Overloading General Rules for Operator Overloading Overloading Unary Operators Increment and Decrement Operator Overloading (C++) Binary Operators Assignment Function Call (C++) Subscripting Member Access Classes and Structs (C++) class (C++) struct (C++) Class Member Overview Member Access Control (C++) friend (C++) private (C++) protected (C++) public (C++) Initializing classes and structs without constructors (C++) Constructors (C++) Copy Constructors and Copy Assignment Operators (C++) Move Constructors and Move Assignment Operators (C++) Destructors (C++) Overview of Member Functions virtual Specifier override Specifier final Specifier Inheritance (C++) Virtual Functions Single Inheritance Base Classes Multiple Base Classes Explicit Overrides (C++) Abstract Classes (C++) Summary of Scope Rules Inheritance Keywords virtual (C++) __super __interface Special Member Functions Static Members (C++) User-Defined Type Conversions (C++) Mutable Data Members (C++) Nested Class Declarations Anonymous Class Types Pointers to Members this Pointer C++ Bit Fields Lambda Expressions in C++ Lambda Expression Syntax Examples of Lambda Expressions Arrays (C++) Using Arrays (C++) Initializing Arrays Arrays in Expressions Interpretation of Subscript Operator Indirection on Array Types Ordering of C++ Arrays References (C++) Lvalue Reference Declarator: & Rvalue Reference Declarator: && Reference-Type Function Arguments Reference-Type Function Returns References to Pointers Pointers (C++) const and volatile Pointers new and delete Operators Exception Handling in Visual C++ C++ Exception Handling try, throw, and catch Statements (C++) How Catch Blocks are Evaluated (C++) Exceptions and Stack Unwinding in C++ Exception Specifications (throw) (C++) noexcept (C++) Unhandled C++ Exceptions Mixing C (Structured) and C++ Exceptions Using setjmp-longjmp Exception Handling Differences Structured Exception Handling (C-C++) Writing an Exception Handler try-except Statement Writing an Exception Filter Raising Software Exceptions Hardware Exceptions Restrictions on Exception Handlers Writing a Termination Handler try-finally Statement Cleaning up Resources Timing of Exception Handling: A Summary Restrictions on Termination Handlers Using Structured Exception Handling with C++ Transporting Exceptions Between Threads Assertion and User-Supplied Messages (C++) static_assert Templates (C++) typename Class Templates Template Friends Function Templates Function Template Instantiation Explicit Instantiation Explicit Specialization of Function Templates Partial Ordering of Function Templates (C++) Member Function Templates Template Specialization (C++) Templates and Name Resolution Name Resolution for Dependent Types Name Resolution for Locally Declared Names Overload Resolution of Function Template Calls Source code organization (C++ Templates) Event Handling __event __hook __raise __unhook Event Handling in Native C++ Event Handling in COM Microsoft-Specific Modifiers Based Addressing __based Grammar Based Pointers (C++) Calling Conventions Argument Passing and Naming Conventions __cdecl __clrcall __stdcall __fastcall __thiscall __vectorcall Calling Example: Function Prototype and Call Results of Calling Example Naked Function Calls Rules and Limitations for Naked Functions Considerations for Writing Prolog-Epilog Code Floating Point Coprocessor and Calling Conventions Obsolete Calling Conventions restrict (C++ AMP) tile_static Keyword __declspec align (C++) allocate appdomain code_seg (__declspec) deprecated (C++) dllexport, dllimport Definitions and Declarations (C++) Defining Inline C++ Functions with dllexport and dllimport General Rules and Limitations Using dllimport and dllexport in C++ Classes jitintrinsic naked (C++) noalias noinline noreturn nothrow (C++) novtable process property (C++) restrict safebuffers selectany thread uuid (C++) __restrict __sptr, __uptr __unaligned __w64 func Compiler COM Support Compiler COM Global Functions _com_raise_error ConvertStringToBSTR ConvertBSTRToString _set_com_error_handler Compiler COM Support Classes _bstr_t Class _bstr_t Member Functions _bstr_t::Assign _bstr_t::Attach _bstr_t::_bstr_t _bstr_t::copy _bstr_t::Detach _bstr_t::GetAddress _bstr_t::GetBSTR _bstr_t::length _bstr_t Operators _bstr_t::operator = _bstr_t::operator +=, + _bstr_t::operator ! _bstr_t Relational Operators _bstr_t::wchar_t*, _bstr_t::char* _com_error Class _com_error Member Functions _com_error::_com_error _com_error::Description _com_error::Error _com_error::ErrorInfo _com_error::ErrorMessage _com_error::GUID _com_error::HelpContext _com_error::HelpFile _com_error::HRESULTToWCode _com_error::Source _com_error::WCode _com_error::WCodeToHRESULT _com_error Operators _com_error::operator = _com_ptr_t Class _com_ptr_t Member Functions _com_ptr_t::_com_ptr_t _com_ptr_t::AddRef _com_ptr_t::Attach _com_ptr_t::CreateInstance _com_ptr_t::Detach _com_ptr_t::GetActiveObject _com_ptr_t::GetInterfacePtr _com_ptr_t::QueryInterface _com_ptr_t::Release _com_ptr_t Operators _com_ptr_t::operator = _com_ptr_t Relational Operators _com_ptr_t Extractors Relational Function Templates _variant_t Class _variant_t Member Functions _variant_t::_variant_t _variant_t::Attach _variant_t::Clear _variant_t::ChangeType _variant_t::Detach _variant_t::SetString _variant_t Operators _variant_t::operator = _variant_t Relational Operators _variant_t Extractors Microsoft Extensions Nonstandard Behavior Compiler Limits Welcome Back to C++ (Modern C++) Support For C++11-14-17 Features (Modern C++) C++ Type System (Modern C++) Value Types (Modern C++) Type Conversions and Type Safety (Modern C++) Uniform Initialization and Delegating Constructors Object Lifetime And Resource Management (Modern C++) Objects Own Resources (RAII) Smart Pointers (Modern C++) How to: Create and Use unique_ptr Instances How to: Create and Use shared_ptr Instances How to: Create and Use weak_ptr Instances How to: Create and Use CComPtr and CComQIPtr Instances Pimpl For Compile-Time Encapsulation (Modern C++) Containers (Modern C++) Algorithms (Modern C++) String and I-O Formatting (Modern C++) Errors and Exception Handling (Modern C++) How to: Design for Exception Safety How to: Interface Between Exceptional and Non-Exceptional Code Portability At ABI Boundaries (Modern C++)
