size_t Vp = config.padded_vocab_size;

size_t C = config.channels;

size_t maxT = config.max_seq_len;

size_t L = config.num_layers;

param_sizes[0] = Vp * C; // wte

param_sizes[1] = maxT * C; // wpe

param_sizes[2] = L * C; // ln1w

param_sizes[3] = L * C; // ln1b

param_sizes[4] = L * (3 * C) * C; // qkvw

param_sizes[5] = L * (3 * C); // qkvb

param_sizes[6] = L * C * C; // attprojw

param_sizes[7] = L * C; // attprojb

param_sizes[8] = L * C; // ln2w

param_sizes[9] = L * C; // ln2b

param_sizes[10] = L * (4 * C) * C; // fcw

param_sizes[11] = L * (4 * C); // fcb

param_sizes[12] = L * C * (4 * C); // fcprojw

param_sizes[13] = L * C; // fcprojb

param_sizes[14] = C; // lnfw

param_sizes[15] = C; // lnfb

size_t C = config.channels;

size_t NH = config.num_heads;

size_t L = config.num_layers;

size_t Vp = config.padded_vocab_size;

act_sizes[0] = B * T * C; // encoded

act_sizes[1] = L * B * T * C; // ln1

act_sizes[2] = L * B * T; // ln1_mean

act_sizes[3] = L * B * T; // ln1_rstd

act_sizes[4] = L * B * T * 3 * C; // qkv

act_sizes[5] = L * B * T * C; // atty

act_sizes[6] = L * B * NH * T * T; // preatt

act_sizes[7] = L * B * NH * T * T; // att

act_sizes[8] = L * B * T * C; // attproj

act_sizes[9] = L * B * T * C; // residual2

act_sizes[10] = L * B * T * C; // ln2

act_sizes[11] = L * B * T; // ln2_mean

act_sizes[12] = L * B * T; // ln2_rstd

act_sizes[13] = L * B * T * 4 * C; // fch

act_sizes[14] = L * B * T * 4 * C; // fch_gelu

act_sizes[15] = L * B * T * C; // fcproj

act_sizes[16] = L * B * T * C; // residual3

act_sizes[17] = B * T * C; // lnf

act_sizes[18] = B * T; // lnf_mean

act_sizes[19] = B * T; // lnf_rstd

act_sizes[20] = B * T * Vp; // logits

act_sizes[21] = B * T * Vp; // probs

act_sizes[22] = B * T; // losses

for (size_t i = 0; i < n; i++) {

tensors[i] = createTensor(ctx, Shape{sizes[i]}, kf32);

}

// read in model from a checkpoint file

FILE *model_file = fopenCheck(checkpoint_path, "rb");

int model_header[256];

freadCheck(model_header, sizeof(int), 256, model_file);

if (model_header[0] != 20240326) { printf("Bad magic model file\n"); exit(1); }

if (model_header[1] != 3) {

printf("Bad version in model file\n");

printf("---> HINT: try to re-run `python train_gpt2.py`\n");

exit(1);

}

// read in hyperparameters

size_t maxT, V, Vp, L, NH, C; // size_t to prevent int overflow

model->config.max_seq_len = maxT = model_header[2];

model->config.vocab_size = V = model_header[3];

#ifdef __EMSCRIPTEN__

model->config.num_layers = L = 12; // TODO(avh): Debugging only hack - revert this

#else

model->config.num_layers = L = model_header[4];

#endif

model->config.num_heads = NH = model_header[5];

model->config.channels = C = model_header[6];

model->config.padded_vocab_size = Vp = model_header[7];

printf("[GPT-2]\n");

printf("max_seq_len: %zu\n", maxT);

printf("vocab_size: %zu\n", V);

printf("padded_vocab_size: %zu\n", Vp);

printf("num_layers: %zu\n", L);

printf("num_heads: %zu\n", NH);

printf("channels: %zu\n", C);

// allocate space for all the parameters and read them in

fill_in_parameter_sizes(model->param_sizes, model->config);

// count the number of parameters

size_t num_parameters = 0;

for (size_t i = 0; i < NUM_PARAMETER_TENSORS; i++) {

num_parameters += model->param_sizes[i];

}

printf("num_parameters: %zu\n", num_parameters);

model->num_parameters = num_parameters;

// read in all the parameters from file

model->params_memory = malloc_and_point_parameters(&model->params, model->param_sizes);

freadCheck(model->params_memory, sizeof(float), num_parameters, model_file);

fcloseCheck(model_file);

// other inits

model->acts_memory = NULL;

model->grads_memory = NULL;

model->m_memory = NULL;

model->v_memory = NULL;

model->grads_acts_memory = NULL;

model->inputs = NULL;

model->targets = NULL;

model->batch_size = 0;

model->seq_len = 0;

model->mean_loss = -1.0f; // -1.0f will designate no loss

// TODO(avh): this is just a resource test for now, eventually deprecate CPU allocations

gpu_alloc(ctx, model->params_.data, model->param_sizes, NUM_PARAMETER_TENSORS);

// targets are optional and could be NULL

// ensure the model was initialized or error out

if (model->params_memory == NULL) {

printf("Error: model was not initialized properly.\n");

exit(1);

}

// convenience parameters (size_t to help prevent int overflow)

size_t V = model->config.vocab_size;

size_t Vp = model->config.padded_vocab_size;

size_t L = model->config.num_layers;

size_t NH = model->config.num_heads;

size_t C = model->config.channels;

// validate inputs, all indices must be in the range [0, V)

for(int i = 0; i < B * T; i++) {

assert(0 <= inputs[i] && inputs[i] < V);

if (targets != NULL) {

assert(0 <= targets[i] && targets[i] < V);

}

}

// allocate space for all the activations if needed (done here, lazily)

if(model->acts_memory == NULL) {

// record the current B,T as well

model->batch_size = B;

model->seq_len = T;

// and now allocate the space

fill_in_activation_sizes(model->act_sizes, model->config, B, T);

// TODO(avh): this is just a resource test for now, eventually deprecate CPU allocations

gpu_alloc(ctx, model->acts_.data, model->act_sizes, NUM_PARAMETER_TENSORS);

size_t num_activations = 0;

for (size_t i = 0; i < NUM_ACTIVATION_TENSORS; i++) {

num_activations += model->act_sizes[i];

}

printf("num_activations: %zu\n", num_activations);

model->num_activations = num_activations;

printf("Allocating %.2f MB for activations\n", num_activations * sizeof(float) / (1024.0f * 1024.0f));

model->acts_memory = malloc_and_point_activations(&model->acts, model->act_sizes);

// also create memory for caching inputs and targets

model->inputs = (int*)mallocCheck(B * T * sizeof(int));

model->targets = (int*)mallocCheck(B * T * sizeof(int)); // might be unused if we never have targets but it's small

} else {

// validate B,T is consistent with how we've allocated the memory before

// in principle we could get more clever here in the future, for now this is safest

if (B != model->batch_size || T != model->seq_len) {

printf("Model: B=%d T=%d, Desired: B=%d T=%d\n", model->batch_size, model->seq_len, (int)B, (int)T);

exit(EXIT_FAILURE);

}

}

printf("Cache inputs/targets\n");

// cache the inputs/targets

memcpy(model->inputs, inputs, B * T * sizeof(int));

if (targets != NULL) {

memcpy(model->targets, targets, B * T * sizeof(int));

}

printf("Forward pass\n");

// forward pass

ParameterTensors params = model->params; // for brevity

ActivationTensors acts = model->acts;

float* residual;

printf("Encoding\n");

printf("inputs[0] = %d\n", inputs[0]);

encoder_forward(ctx, acts.encoded, inputs, params.wte, params.wpe, B, T, C); // encoding goes into residual[0]

for (int l = 0; l < L; l++) {

printf("Forward Pass Layer %d\n", l);

residual = l == 0 ? acts.encoded : acts.residual3 + (l-1) * B * T * C;

// get the pointers of the weights for this layer

float* l_ln1w = params.ln1w + l * C;

float* l_ln1b = params.ln1b + l * C;

float* l_qkvw = params.qkvw + l * 3*C * C;

float* l_qkvb = params.qkvb + l * 3*C;

float* l_attprojw = params.attprojw + l * C * C;

float* l_attprojb = params.attprojb + l * C;

float* l_ln2w = params.ln2w + l * C;

float* l_ln2b = params.ln2b + l * C;

float* l_fcw = params.fcw + l * 4*C * C;

float* l_fcb = params.fcb + l * 4*C;

float* l_fcprojw = params.fcprojw + l * C * 4*C;

float* l_fcprojb = params.fcprojb + l * C;

// get the pointers of the activations for this layer

float* l_ln1 = acts.ln1 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln1_mean = acts.ln1_mean + l * B * T;

float* l_ln1_rstd = acts.ln1_rstd + l * B * T;

float* l_qkv = acts.qkv + l * B * T * 3*C;

float* l_atty = acts.atty + l * B * T * C;

float* l_preatt = acts.preatt + l * B * NH * T * T;

float* l_att = acts.att + l * B * NH * T * T;

float* l_attproj = acts.attproj + l * B * T * C;

float* l_residual2 = acts.residual2 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln2 = acts.ln2 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln2_mean = acts.ln2_mean + l * B * T;

float* l_ln2_rstd = acts.ln2_rstd + l * B * T;

float* l_fch = acts.fch + l * B * T * 4*C;

float* l_fch_gelu = acts.fch_gelu + l * B * T * 4*C;

float* l_fcproj = acts.fcproj + l * B * T * C;

float* l_residual3 = acts.residual3 + l * B * T * C;

// now do the forward pass

printf(" [Forward] : LayerNorm1\n");

layernorm_forward(ctx, l_ln1, l_ln1_mean, l_ln1_rstd, residual, l_ln1w, l_ln1b, B, T, C);

printf(" [Forward] : QKV Projection\n");

matmul_forward(ctx, l_qkv, l_ln1, l_qkvw, l_qkvb, B, T, C, 3*C);

printf(" [Forward] : Attention\n");

attention_forward(ctx, l_atty, l_preatt, l_att, l_qkv, B, T, C, NH);

printf(" [Forward] : Attention Projection\n");

matmul_forward(ctx, l_attproj, l_atty, l_attprojw, l_attprojb, B, T, C, C);

printf(" [Forward] : Residual1\n");

residual_forward(ctx, l_residual2, residual, l_attproj, B*T*C);

printf(" [Forward] : LayerNorm2\n");

layernorm_forward(ctx, l_ln2, l_ln2_mean, l_ln2_rstd, l_residual2, l_ln2w, l_ln2b, B, T, C);

printf(" [Forward] : FF Up\n");

matmul_forward(ctx, l_fch, l_ln2, l_fcw, l_fcb, B, T, C, 4*C);

printf(" [Forward] : GELU\n");

gelu_forward(ctx, l_fch_gelu, l_fch, B*T*4*C);

printf(" [Forward] : FF Down\n");

matmul_forward(ctx, l_fcproj, l_fch_gelu, l_fcprojw, l_fcprojb, B, T, 4*C, C);

printf(" [Forward] : Residual2\n");

residual_forward(ctx, l_residual3, l_residual2, l_fcproj, B*T*C);

}

residual = acts.residual3 + (L-1) * B * T * C; // last residual is in residual3

layernorm_forward(ctx, acts.lnf, acts.lnf_mean, acts.lnf_rstd, residual, params.lnfw, params.lnfb, B, T, C);

matmul_forward(ctx, acts.logits, acts.lnf, params.wte, NULL, B, T, C, Vp);

softmax_forward(ctx, acts.probs, acts.logits, B, T, V, Vp);

printf("Crossentropy\n");

// also forward the cross-entropy loss function if we have the targets

if (targets != NULL) {

crossentropy_forward(ctx, model->acts.losses, model->acts.probs, targets, B, T, Vp);

// for convenience also evaluate the mean loss

float mean_loss = 0.0f;

for (int i=0; i<B*T; i++) { mean_loss += model->acts.losses[i]; }

mean_loss /= B*T;

model->mean_loss = mean_loss;

} else {

// if we don't have targets, we don't have a loss

model->mean_loss = -1.0f;

}

printf("Forward pass done\n");

printf("Backward pass\n");

// double check we forwarded previously, with targets

if (model->mean_loss == -1.0f) {

printf("Error: must forward with targets before backward\n");

exit(1);

}

// lazily allocate the memory for gradients of the weights and activations, if needed

if (model->grads_memory == NULL) {

printf("Allocating %.2f MB for gradients\n", model->num_parameters * sizeof(float) / (1024.0f * 1024.0f));

model->grads_memory = malloc_and_point_parameters(&model->grads, model->param_sizes);

model->grads_acts_memory = malloc_and_point_activations(&model->grads_acts, model->act_sizes);

gpt2_zero_grad(model);

}

// convenience shortcuts (and size_t to help prevent int overflow)

size_t B = model->batch_size;

size_t T = model->seq_len;

size_t V = model->config.vocab_size;

size_t Vp = model->config.padded_vocab_size;

size_t L = model->config.num_layers;

size_t NH = model->config.num_heads;

size_t C = model->config.channels;

// backward pass: go in the reverse order of the forward pass, and call backward() functions

ParameterTensors params = model->params; // for brevity

ParameterTensors grads = model->grads;

ActivationTensors acts = model->acts;

ActivationTensors grads_acts = model->grads_acts;

// we kick off the chain rule by filling in dlosses with 1.0f/(B*T)

// technically this is a small, inline backward() pass of calculating

// total, final loss as the mean over all losses over all (B,T) positions in the batch

float dloss_mean = 1.0f / (B*T);

for (int i = 0; i < B*T; i++) { grads_acts.losses[i] = dloss_mean; }

crossentropy_softmax_backward(ctx, grads_acts.logits, grads_acts.losses, acts.probs, model->targets, B, T, V, Vp);

matmul_backward(ctx, grads_acts.lnf, grads.wte, NULL, grads_acts.logits, acts.lnf, params.wte, B, T, C, Vp);

float* residual = acts.residual3 + (L-1) * B * T * C; // last layer's residual

float* dresidual = grads_acts.residual3 + (L-1) * B * T * C; // write to last layer's residual

layernorm_backward(ctx, dresidual, grads.lnfw, grads.lnfb, grads_acts.lnf, residual, params.lnfw, acts.lnf_mean, acts.lnf_rstd, B, T, C);

for (int l = L-1; l >= 0; l--) {

printf("Backward Pass Layer %d\n", l);

residual = l == 0 ? acts.encoded : acts.residual3 + (l-1) * B * T * C;

dresidual = l == 0 ? grads_acts.encoded : grads_acts.residual3 + (l-1) * B * T * C;

// get the pointers of the weights for this layer

float* l_ln1w = params.ln1w + l * C;

float* l_qkvw = params.qkvw + l * 3*C * C;

float* l_attprojw = params.attprojw + l * C * C;

float* l_ln2w = params.ln2w + l * C;

float* l_fcw = params.fcw + l * 4*C * C;

float* l_fcprojw = params.fcprojw + l * C * 4*C;

// get the pointers of the gradients of the weights for this layer

float* dl_ln1w = grads.ln1w + l * C;

float* dl_ln1b = grads.ln1b + l * C;

float* dl_qkvw = grads.qkvw + l * 3*C * C;

float* dl_qkvb = grads.qkvb + l * 3*C;

float* dl_attprojw = grads.attprojw + l * C * C;

float* dl_attprojb = grads.attprojb + l * C;

float* dl_ln2w = grads.ln2w + l * C;

float* dl_ln2b = grads.ln2b + l * C;

float* dl_fcw = grads.fcw + l * 4*C * C;

float* dl_fcb = grads.fcb + l * 4*C;

float* dl_fcprojw = grads.fcprojw + l * C * 4*C;

float* dl_fcprojb = grads.fcprojb + l * C;

// get the pointers of the activations for this layer

float* l_ln1 = acts.ln1 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln1_mean = acts.ln1_mean + l * B * T;

float* l_ln1_rstd = acts.ln1_rstd + l * B * T;

float* l_qkv = acts.qkv + l * B * T * 3*C;

float* l_atty = acts.atty + l * B * T * C;

float* l_att = acts.att + l * B * NH * T * T;

float* l_residual2 = acts.residual2 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln2 = acts.ln2 + l * B * T * C;

float* l_ln2_mean = acts.ln2_mean + l * B * T;

float* l_ln2_rstd = acts.ln2_rstd + l * B * T;

float* l_fch = acts.fch + l * B * T * 4*C;

float* l_fch_gelu = acts.fch_gelu + l * B * T * 4*C;

// get the pointers of the gradients of the activations for this layer

float* dl_ln1 = grads_acts.ln1 + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_qkv = grads_acts.qkv + l * B * T * 3*C;

float* dl_atty = grads_acts.atty + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_preatt = grads_acts.preatt + l * B * NH * T * T;

float* dl_att = grads_acts.att + l * B * NH * T * T;

float* dl_attproj = grads_acts.attproj + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_residual2 = grads_acts.residual2 + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_ln2 = grads_acts.ln2 + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_fch = grads_acts.fch + l * B * T * 4*C;

float* dl_fch_gelu = grads_acts.fch_gelu + l * B * T * 4*C;

float* dl_fcproj = grads_acts.fcproj + l * B * T * C;

float* dl_residual3 = grads_acts.residual3 + l * B * T * C;

// backprop this layer

printf(" [Backward] : Residual2\n");

residual_backward(ctx, dl_residual2, dl_fcproj, dl_residual3, B*T*C);

printf(" [Backward] : FF Down \n");

matmul_backward(ctx, dl_fch_gelu, dl_fcprojw, dl_fcprojb, dl_fcproj, l_fch_gelu, l_fcprojw, B, T, 4*C, C);

printf(" [Backward] : GELU\n");

gelu_backward(ctx, dl_fch, l_fch, dl_fch_gelu, B*T*4*C);

printf(" [Backward] : FF Up\n");

matmul_backward(ctx, dl_ln2, dl_fcw, dl_fcb, dl_fch, l_ln2, l_fcw, B, T, C, 4*C);

printf(" [Backward] : LayerNorm2\n");

layernorm_backward(ctx, dl_residual2, dl_ln2w, dl_ln2b, dl_ln2, l_residual2, l_ln2w, l_ln2_mean, l_ln2_rstd, B, T, C);

printf(" [Backward] : Residual1\n");

residual_backward(ctx, dresidual, dl_attproj, dl_residual2, B*T*C);

printf(" [Backward] : Attention Projection\n");

matmul_backward(ctx, dl_atty, dl_attprojw, dl_attprojb, dl_attproj, l_atty, l_attprojw, B, T, C, C);

printf(" [Backward] : Attention\n");

attention_backward(ctx, dl_qkv, dl_preatt, dl_att, dl_atty, l_qkv, l_att, B, T, C, NH);

printf(" [Backward] : QKV Projection\n");

matmul_backward(ctx, dl_ln1, dl_qkvw, dl_qkvb, dl_qkv, l_ln1, l_qkvw, B, T, C, 3*C);

printf(" [Backward] : LayerNorm1\n");

layernorm_backward(ctx, dresidual, dl_ln1w, dl_ln1b, dl_ln1, residual, l_ln1w, l_ln1_mean, l_ln1_rstd, B, T, C);

}

encoder_backward(ctx, grads.wte, grads.wpe, grads_acts.encoded, model->inputs, B, T, C);

// reference: https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.optim.AdamW.html

// lazily allocate the memory for m_memory and v_memory

if (model->m_memory == NULL) {

model->m_memory = (float*)calloc(model->num_parameters, sizeof(float));

model->v_memory = (float*)calloc(model->num_parameters, sizeof(float));

}

for (size_t i = 0; i < model->num_parameters; i++) {

float param = model->params_memory[i];

float grad = model->grads_memory[i];

// update the first moment (momentum)

float m = beta1 * model->m_memory[i] + (1.0f - beta1) * grad;

// update the second moment (RMSprop)

float v = beta2 * model->v_memory[i] + (1.0f - beta2) * grad * grad;

// bias-correct both moments

float m_hat = m / (1.0f - powf(beta1, t));

float v_hat = v / (1.0f - powf(beta2, t));

// update

model->m_memory[i] = m;

model->v_memory[i] = v;

model->params_memory[i] -= learning_rate * (m_hat / (sqrtf(v_hat) + eps) + weight_decay * param);

}

free(model->params_memory);

free(model->grads_memory);

free(model->m_memory);

free(model->v_memory);

free(model->acts_memory);

free(model->grads_acts_memory);

free(model->inputs);

free(model->targets);

// xorshift rng: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xorshift#xorshift.2A

*state ^= *state >> 12;

*state ^= *state << 25;

*state ^= *state >> 27;

return (*state * 0x2545F4914F6CDD1Dull) >> 32;

// sample index from probabilities (they must sum to 1!)

// coin is a random number in [0, 1), usually from random_f32()

float cdf = 0.0f;

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

cdf += probabilities[i];

if (coin < cdf) {

return i;

}

}

return n - 1; // in case of rounding errors

setLogLevel(kWarn);

printf("Creating GPU context\n");

WGPURequiredLimits requiredLimits = LIMITS_BUFFER_SIZE_1GB;

gpu::Context ctx = gpu::createContext({}, {}, {

.requiredLimits = &requiredLimits

});

// gpu::Context ctx = gpu::createContext();

// build the GPT-2 model from a checkpoint

GPT2 model;

gpt2_build_from_checkpoint(ctx, &model, "gpt2_124M.bin");

// build the DataLoaders from tokens files. for now use tiny_shakespeare if available, else tiny_stories

const char* tiny_stories_train = "dev/data/tinystories/TinyStories_train.bin";

const char* tiny_stories_val = "dev/data/tinystories/TinyStories_val.bin";

const char* tiny_shakespeare_train = "dev/data/tinyshakespeare/tiny_shakespeare_train.bin";

const char* tiny_shakespeare_val = "dev/data/tinyshakespeare/tiny_shakespeare_val.bin";

const char* train_tokens = access(tiny_shakespeare_train, F_OK) != -1 ? tiny_shakespeare_train : tiny_stories_train;

const char* val_tokens = access(tiny_shakespeare_val, F_OK) != -1 ? tiny_shakespeare_val : tiny_stories_val;

constexpr int B = 4; // batch size 4 (i.e. 4 independent token sequences will be trained on)

constexpr int T = 64; // sequence length 64 (i.e. each sequence is 64 tokens long). must be <= maxT, which is 1024 for GPT-2

DataLoader train_loader, val_loader;

dataloader_init(&train_loader, train_tokens, B, T, 0, 1, 1);

dataloader_init(&val_loader, val_tokens, B, T, 0, 1, 0);

printf("train dataset num_batches: %zu\n", train_loader.num_tokens / (B*T));

printf("val dataset num_batches: %zu\n", val_loader.num_tokens / (B*T));

int val_num_batches = 5;

// build the Tokenizer

Tokenizer tokenizer;

tokenizer_init(&tokenizer, "gpt2_tokenizer.bin");

// some memory for generating samples from the model

uint64_t rng_state = 1337;

int* gen_tokens = (int*)mallocCheck(B * T * sizeof(int));

const int genT = 64; // number of steps of inference we will do

// train

struct timespec start, end;

printf("Starting training\n");

for (int step = 0; step <= 40; step++) {

printf("Step %d\n", step);

// once in a while estimate the validation loss

if (step % 10 == 0) {

float val_loss = 0.0f;

dataloader_reset(&val_loader);

for (int i = 0; i < val_num_batches; i++) {

dataloader_next_batch(&val_loader);

gpt2_forward(ctx, &model, val_loader.inputs, val_loader.targets, B, T);

val_loss += model.mean_loss;

}

val_loss /= val_num_batches;

printf("val loss %f\n", val_loss);

}

// once in a while do model inference to print generated text

if (step > 0 && step % 20 == 0) {

// fill up gen_tokens with the GPT2_EOT, which kicks off the generation

for(int i = 0; i < B * T; ++i) {

gen_tokens[i] = tokenizer.eot_token;

}

// now sample from the model autoregressively

printf("generating:\n---\n");

for (int t = 1; t < genT; t++) {

// note that inference is very wasteful here because for each token

// we re-calculate the forward pass for all of (B,T) positions from scratch

// but the inference here is just for sanity checking anyway

// and we can maybe optimize a bit more later, with careful tests

gpt2_forward(ctx, &model, gen_tokens, NULL, B, T);

// furthermore, below we're only using b=0 (i.e. the first row) of all B rows

// we're in principle running B "inference streams" in parallel here

// but only using position 0

// get the Vp-dimensional vector probs[0, t-1, :]

float* probs = model.acts.probs + (t-1) * model.config.padded_vocab_size;

float coin = random_f32(&rng_state);

// note we're only sampling from the first V elements, ignoring padding

// (the probabilities in the padded region should be zero anyway)

int next_token = sample_mult(probs, model.config.vocab_size, coin);

gen_tokens[t] = next_token;

// print the generated token, either using the Tokenizer or a fallback

if (tokenizer.init_ok) {

const char* token_str = tokenizer_decode(&tokenizer, next_token);

safe_printf(token_str);

} else {

// fall back to printing the token id

printf("%d ", next_token);

}

fflush(stdout);

}

printf("\n---\n");

}

// do a training step

clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &start);

dataloader_next_batch(&train_loader);

gpt2_forward(ctx, &model, train_loader.inputs, train_loader.targets, B, T);

gpt2_zero_grad(&model);

gpt2_backward(ctx, &model);

gpt2_update(&model, 1e-4f, 0.9f, 0.999f, 1e-8f, 0.0f, step+1);

clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &end);

double time_elapsed_s = (end.tv_sec - start.tv_sec) + (end.tv_nsec - start.tv_nsec) / 1e9;

printf("step %d: train loss %f (took %f ms)\n", step, model.mean_loss, time_elapsed_s * 1000);

}

// free

dataloader_free(&train_loader);

dataloader_free(&val_loader);

tokenizer_free(&tokenizer);

gpt2_free(&model);

free(gen_tokens);

return 0;